Born in Fort de Kock (now Bukittinggi) in the Dutch East Indies, he grew up in a Minangkabau society shaped by trade and Islamic schooling. Early colonial realities and local reform currents influenced his disciplined, bookish character.

He pursued Dutch-language education in Padang, gaining access to European political ideas while witnessing colonial inequalities firsthand. The mix of modern instruction and indigenous identity sharpened his interest in self-determination and economics.

Moving to Rotterdam, he entered the world of European universities and Indonesian student networks. Exposure to debates on socialism, nationalism, and colonial policy helped him frame independence as both moral and institutional work.

He rose within Perhimpunan Indonesia, helping steer it toward a clear anti-colonial platform rather than cultural association. Through speeches and careful writing, he connected Indonesian aspirations to global currents of decolonization.

Dutch police detained him alongside other Perhimpunan Indonesia figures, treating their writings as threats to colonial order. In court he defended independence as a legitimate national right, turning repression into political publicity.

Back in Java, he joined the struggle on the ground, working with activists to rebuild organizations under strict surveillance. His emphasis on disciplined cadres and economic clarity distinguished him from more theatrical politics.

Colonial authorities exiled him to Boven-Digoel, a notorious political prison camp in New Guinea designed to isolate nationalist leadership. He used the isolation to read, write, and refine ideas about governance and cooperative economics.

He was moved to Banda Neira in the Maluku Islands, where political detainees lived under watch but had limited intellectual freedom. There he continued studying world politics and mentoring younger nationalists in strategy and ethics.

With Japan's conquest of the Indies, old colonial structures collapsed and nationalist leaders faced complex collaboration pressures. He engaged cautiously with emerging institutions, aiming to prepare administrative capacity for future sovereignty.

On 17 August 1945, he and Sukarno proclaimed independence in Jakarta as Japan surrendered and Allied forces prepared to return. He helped shape the proclamation and early cabinet work, focusing on legitimacy and institutional continuity.

In the new republican leadership, he served as vice president, balancing Sukarno's mass appeal with administrative rigor. He emphasized clean governance, realistic diplomacy, and economic plans rooted in cooperatives and national self-reliance.

During the revolution, he took leading roles in government, including serving as prime minister in a critical period of negotiations and armed conflict. His cautious style aimed to preserve international support while sustaining republican cohesion.

As Dutch military actions escalated, he worked to keep the republic recognized abroad through negotiation and UN-focused diplomacy. He weighed military realities against the need for a settlement that preserved sovereignty and unity.

After years of revolution, negotiations culminated in Dutch acceptance of Indonesian sovereignty at the end of 1949. He contributed to the constitutional and diplomatic groundwork that enabled a transfer of authority and international recognition.

In the early independence era, he argued that cooperatives could protect small producers and build inclusive prosperity after colonial extraction. His speeches and essays linked economic citizenship to democracy, stressing ethics, savings, and education.

He resigned amid growing disagreements over governance style, party politics, and the drift toward centralized authority under Sukarno. The resignation highlighted his commitment to constitutional limits, personal integrity, and accountable administration.

Following upheaval and the shift toward Suharto's New Order, he re-emerged as a moral reference point rather than a power-seeker. He continued warning against authoritarianism and corruption, urging rule-based government and civic responsibility.

He died in Jakarta, widely honored as a founding figure who paired revolutionary courage with administrative sobriety. His legacy endures through Indonesia's independence narrative and his influential advocacy of cooperatives and ethical politics.