Socrates

Socrates was born in Alopece, a district of Athens, to Sophroniscus, a stonemason and sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife. His humble origins did not prevent him from becoming one of history's most influential philosophers. Growing up in the Golden Age of Athens under Pericles, he witnessed the city's intellectual and cultural flourishing, which would shape his revolutionary approach to philosophy and his method of questioning that challenged conventional wisdom and encouraged critical thinking.

As a young man, Socrates studied the natural philosophy of his predecessors, including the teachings of Anaxagoras and the theories of the pre-Socratic philosophers. However, he became dissatisfied with their focus on physical explanations of the universe. This dissatisfaction led him to turn his attention away from cosmology and natural science toward ethics and the examination of human behavior, virtue, and the nature of knowledge itself, setting the foundation for his unique philosophical method.

Socrates served as a hoplite (heavily armed foot soldier) in the Athenian army during the siege of Potidaea in the Peloponnesian War. He distinguished himself through his remarkable endurance, courage, and self-discipline. According to his student Alcibiades, Socrates saved Alcibiades' life during the battle and showed extraordinary physical resilience, walking barefoot on ice and standing motionless in contemplation for an entire day and night, demonstrating the same philosophical composure in war as in peace.

Socrates participated in the Battle of Delium, where the Athenian forces suffered a significant defeat. During the chaotic retreat, Socrates maintained his composure and helped protect younger soldiers, including Xenophon. His calm demeanor and rational behavior in the face of danger again demonstrated the practical application of his philosophical principles. This military service earned him respect among his fellow citizens and showed that his philosophy was not mere abstract speculation but a way of life applicable to all situations.

The comic playwright Aristophanes presented 'The Clouds' at the City Dionysia festival, a comedy that satirized Socrates as a sophist who taught young men to make weak arguments appear strong and questioned traditional values. Though inaccurate in its portrayal, this play significantly shaped public perception of Socrates and may have contributed to the suspicion and hostility that eventually led to his trial. Socrates himself later referenced this play, suggesting it influenced the charges brought against him decades later.

As a member of the Boule (Council of 500), Socrates was the only one to vote against the illegal trial and execution of the eight Athenian generals after the Battle of Arginusae. Despite public pressure and personal danger, he refused to participate in what he saw as an unjust act. This incident demonstrated his unwavering commitment to justice and the rule of law, even when it meant standing alone against popular opinion and risking his own safety—a principle he would maintain until his death.

When the oligarchic regime known as the Thirty Tyrants came to power after Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War, they ordered Socrates and four others to arrest Leon of Salamis for execution without trial. While the others complied, Socrates refused and went home instead, risking his life to maintain his principles. This act of civil disobedience demonstrated his commitment to justice over obedience to unjust authority. The regime's quick fall likely saved his life, but this incident further marked him as politically dangerous to some Athenians.

Socrates was brought to trial on charges of corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety (asebeia)—specifically, not believing in the gods recognized by the state and introducing new deities. His accusers were Meletus, Anytus, and Lycon. Rather than employing the emotional appeals typical of Athenian trials, Socrates used his characteristic method of questioning, which many jurors found arrogant. He was convicted by a narrow margin of 280 to 220 votes. When asked to propose his own punishment, he sarcastically suggested he should be honored and maintained at public expense, which offended the jury and led to a death sentence.

After spending his final days in prison discussing philosophy with his disciples, Socrates refused opportunities to escape, arguing that to do so would be to break the laws of Athens, which he had implicitly agreed to obey by choosing to live there. On the appointed day, he calmly drank the cup of hemlock poison as prescribed by Athenian law. His final words, according to Plato, were: 'Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Please, don't forget to pay the debt.' His death became a powerful symbol of intellectual integrity and the willingness to die for one's principles. Though he wrote nothing himself, his ideas survived through the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, profoundly influencing Western philosophy.